Students and teachers should be tested for drug use in public schools Research Paper

Students and teachers should be tested for drug use in public schools - Research Paper Example Another way of determining the importance of a study is by looking at its impact on the current theory or practice in its respective field. According to Algozzine, Daunic, and Algozzine (2010), educational practice includes conflict resolution, peer mediation, and promotion of social relationship. The issue of drug use affects all the three aspects of educational practice. Therefore, the research undertaken in this study would reveal a solution to a problem that is affecting education practice. This makes the study undertaken in the proposed research to be very significant in education practice to both the educators and the students. One of the benefits would be deciding the fate of drug testing in public schools. If the results of the research justify that we should test students and teachers for drug use in all public schools, then drug testing will be adapted in all our schools. However, if the research proves otherwise, then drug testing would be dropped even in the schools that currently use it on their students and teachers. From this research, we would identify alternatives to drug testing in fighting drug use in public schools. We would also be able to identify methods of testing drug use among students that are currently in use, their merits, and demerits. This would help various education stakeholders in their efforts of improving education in our public schools.As indicated above, this study would be very significant to the whole public school fraternity and other education stakeholders.

Healthcare Reforms in England Issues of Efficiency

Healthcare Reforms in England Issues of Efficiency The healthcare service in England attempts to improve the overall healthcare service have been ongoing through some of the most radical reforms since its inception as a comprehensive public service since 1948. The noticeable need of a free healthcare service was essential after the state of the country due to the world war. Once the NHS was established it saw many reforms led by diverse types of governments at different times. Despite the scale of the reforms they have preserved their core principle of A free service at the point of delivery 1 till this very day. Even though they have adopted the core principle they still face huge challenges; as demands and costs are still rising, the entirety of the service is increasingly being looked at. This paper looks at the reforms the NHS has been through and analyses each reform in the light of Efficiency: the capability of the NHS, whether the reform made the NHS more competent, Equity: bringing fairness and equal right for the patients as well as the staff, Quality: whether adapting the reforms improved the patients ability to acquire different types of healthcare services without any predicament and obtain high-quality healthcare services. Methodology This paper was conjured up by the use of reports published by NHS Publications website. Journals and studies on NHS reform via the scientific database PubMed were also utilized. To gain info on the theories the NHS was formed on, management theory books by Max Weber, Henri Fayol and Frederic Winslow Taylor were used. Results/Discussion Each reform improvised the NHS in many ways, in relation to Efficiency the NHS since its inception has seen major investments and new hospitals built, employment of up to date technology allowing more patients to be seen within an applicable time and budgets been controlled efficiently with the aim to reduce costs each year allowing the NHS to run efficiently. In terms of Equity after the publication of the Black report, the NHS has improved on giving equal opportunities to its minor ethnic groups of staff. Also the equal treatment of patients regardless of their social class has been improved since the Blair era. The NHS in terms of quality has become one of the world leading healthcare providers. Measuring their services against standards set by the NHS ensured that they are meeting the set standards. The major investment in staff in 2000 saw a number of lives saved in the past 10 years. The NHS has met quality standards that are accepted by its patients and valued as a first class service. Conclusion Overall the NHS has seen many reforms which have lead to the NHS becoming a world class service. Since the reforms in the 1960s to the latest plans of the new coalition government the NHS has improved immensely in terms of efficiency, equity and quality and the future also looks bright for the NHS. Introduction: Healthcare service in England was launched in 1948 with an aim to provide universal healthcare to its citizens which is free at the point of use and available to everyone based on need, not ability to pay 1. The NHS was established after World War II where the country needed a stable healthcare service 2. The initial idea was that no-one should be deterred from seeking health services by a lack of resources and the founder Aneurin Bevan: Minster of Health stated A free service at the point of delivery 3. Till this day they have been providing free healthcare service to the citizens of England. In 1948 Sir William Beveridge, a British Economist and a Social Reformer conferred details of his radical plans for economic and social reform in post-war Britain. Sir William proposed major healthcare service changes on the basis that the country needed the abolition of want before the enjoyment of comfort and suggested a scheme where every kind of medical treatment would be available for everybody. 1,3 Pre NHS There has been some form of state-funded provision of health and social care in England prior to the NHS for 400 years.4 Prior to a health system being formed, attaining healthcare service in Britain in the 1930s and 1940s was difficult. Life expectancy was very low and thousands of people died of infectious diseases like pneumonia, meningitis, tuberculosis, diphtheria, and polio each year.4 The poor never had access to medical treatment and they relied instead on dubious and sometimes dangerous home remedies. Either that or they relied on doctors who gave their services free to the poor patients. The Hospitals charged for treatment and although the poor were reimbursed and before they received treatment they had to pay.4 Figure 1 shows the life expectancy that has changed since the NHS was introduced. Figure 1.Life expectancy changes since 1840 5 The need for free healthcare was widely recognised, but it was impossible to achieve without the support or resources of the government. A study showed that experts believed and have written extensively on the reasons of why a health service was needed.6 These included: The appearance of a view that health care was essential, not something just imparted erratically by charity The drastic effects of the war that made it possible to have a massive change of the healthcare service being provided, rather than just an incremental alteration As younger members of the country were becoming increasingly educated in the medical profession they had a view of things could be handle in a more efficient way. The hospitals having financial problems, funds not sufficing.6 Having looked at the reasons to why a health service was needed the government made plans and core principles were established: 6 Regardless of persons status they were eligible for health care, even people temporarily residing or visiting the country.ÂÂ   People could be referred to any hospital. The healthcare service was financed almost 100% from central taxationÂÂ   Care was entirely free at the point of use6 The main achievement was that the poor who in the past went without medical treatment now had access to free healthcare.6 NHS today and NHS employment NHS is one of the largest organisations in the world with an annual budget of around ÂÂ £80 billion employing more than 1.7 million people and treating over one million people every 36 hours.7 In general, healthcare service being provided within England to every single citizen is a difficult commission to undertake and consequently the system needs efficient health personnels to help run the system economically. Today the view of the healthcare service in England is that the NHS is a world leader and provides first class service that other countries envy. Countries all over the world seek to learn from the comprehensive system of general practice, and its role as the medical home for patients, providing continuity of care and coordination.8 Other countries look at English NHS system and use them as a guideline to run their healthcare system. NHS Structure The healthcare service in England has been run in a structural way with the Secretary of state and Department of Health controlling the overall NHS in England. The secretary of state for health has the responsibility of reporting to the prime minister. There are10 Strategic Health Authorities (SHAs) in England which are controlled by the Department of Health, they oversee all the activities within the NHS and the SHAs supervise all the NHS trusts in its area. Primary care plays a major role in community healthcare and is central to the NHS. Services under NHS trust (Secondary Care) include Hospitals, Mental Health services, Learning disability services and Ambulances. The overall structure of the NHS is shown below in Figure 2. 9 Although this is the current NHS structure with the new government in power, changes are to follow. Figure.2 overall structure of the Healthcare system in England 5 NHS Reforms Since its inception in 1948 the NHS has seen many reforms in terms of managing the way they provide healthcare service. The DoH has a lot of control and influence the major decisions taken in the reforms. The overall expectations of Healthcare service in England are of a high calibre, which requisites high-quality management capacity.10 In the 1980s and early 1990s prominence was on recuperating management. The recent focal point has been on development of leadership within NHS. With the new government, new ideas and plans will be imposed to see improvements in quality of healthcare being provided, cut down on costs making it more efficient and in terms of equity provide equal service to everyone. Table 1 briefly enlists the reforms that have taken place since its inception in 1948. Table.1 Reforms in the NHS: 1948-2010 Period the reforms were in place Reform and theory of Management 1948- 1960 Managers as diplomats 1960s Scientific Management and the Salmon report 1970s Classical Management, Systems Approaches and the 1974 Reorganization 1980s The Griffiths report and Managerialism 1990s Working for Patients and the Internal Market 2000 The NHS Plan (DOH 2000) and the Third Way. 2010 NHS White Paper 2010: Equity and excellence: Liberating the NHS Healthcare service and Reforms in other Developed Countries Healthcare reforms within developed countries can be analyzed in order to compare whether the healthcare services in England have been successful in its bid to ensure efficiency, equity and quality. Attempts to handle reforms of the healthcare system in the European countries have been an ongoing process for 30 years. Although the reforms have taken throughout the 30 years in different ways, their main emphasis has been on improving the cost-effectiveness of the healthcare service. In the early 1980s the EU countries were looking at cost containment. The feature in the 1990s was to endorse efficiency in terms of introducing competition and markets in the healthcare system. Since 2000 the focus has switched to effectiveness; promoting various notions of healthcare in terms of quality.11 Over the course of the 20th century the countries of Europe have established significant success in improving the healthcare service for their citizens. However they still face challenges in the form of restraining costs, improving quality and providing universal healthcare access, these have put the European healthcare services under immense pressure.11 Looking at another OECD: USA, A report on A review of health care reform in the United States assessed whether the USA have been successful in providing healthcare. The findings showed that United States spent more per capita on health care than any other OECD country, yet its health outcomes lagged behind other countries.12 This shows they are struggling with efficiency issues and are still countering challenges in providing quality healthcare service that is expected from the citizens of the USA. Especially in the last few years Healthcare reform has been a major activity of the federal government, in order to revolutionize and develop the service overall. The 3 goals of optimizing cost, access and quality still remain a challenge within the healthcare society in the U.S.12 They concluded that USA still faced many challenges in running the national healthcare service, a key challenge they face is the utter complexity of the system, with its numerous public and private providers.12 Another OECD country reviewed in terms of healthcare service being provided and the reforms that have taken place is China. A report from on From a national, centrally planned health system to a system based on the market: lessons from China concluded: China is the country that has undergone the highest number of health care reforms. Since 1978, China saw many reforms and they also followed the way as the EU countries, with the healthcare system starting from governmental, centrally planned and a collective system to ending up as a heavily market influenced system. Now, thirty years later, the Chinese government openly concede that the reforms were unsuccessful and seek innovative and fresh directions.13 This illustrates that China is also in a healthcare crisis and looking to implement different strategies in order to gain control of Chinas Healthcare system. Having reviewed the healthcare service being endowed in these developed countries, it demonstrates that they are all on an identical level as the healthcare service being provided in England and all face similar challenges. All these developed countries are looking to develop the countries overall healthcare service in terms of efficiency, equity and quality. NHS Plan 2000 and the future of NHS Since the last reform: The NHS plan 2000 14, a lot has transformed in terms of funding and operating the healthcare system in England. Especially with the new coalition governments idea of cutting budgets it is a difficult time the NHS is going through and will necessitate a lot of expertise and world class management to get through todays financial and economical predicament. An additional indication that will be taken into deliberation is the election of the new plans set out in the NHS White Paper 2010. As the new coalition government has come into authority there have been huge changes to overall budgets for the public services and this possibly will have a consequence on the way the NHS operates in England. 15 The reforms have encompassed a significant impact on the organisation and deliverance of health care service in England. Wide array of transformations have been pioneered in an attempt to ensure the NHS is managed more resourcefully and effectively. This report will examine whether these reforms have on the whole improved the healthcare system in England in terms of efficiency, equity and quality and if the publics requirements have been convened. Aims: To examine the healthcare reforms in England since its inception and to assess whether these reforms have improved factors of efficiency, equity and quality in providing healthcare. Objectives: To review the reforms in the NHS since its inception in 1948 To examine whether these reforms improved efficiency, equity and quality of healthcare To assess the key features of healthcare reforms proposed by the current government and their implications on the NHS To put forward plans for the future of the NHS Methodology: A number of sources were consulted to conjure up this paper and examine the healthcare reforms in the NHS. Scientific search engines and databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar and Science Direct (Date accessed 20/10/10) were used to gain literature reviews but results from Google Scholar and Science Direct were dismissed as they were too vague and irrelevant to this topic. With PubMed following keywords were inserted Healthcare, Reforms and England. The data was also set from 1948 to 2010 when searching for reports as this would set the inclusion criteria. The reports and journals since 1948, when the NHS was established were used. Even though history before 1948 was looked at for study purposes, reports before NHS establishment; these were regarded as the exclusion criteria as reports werent looked at prior to 1948. Healthcare service within Britain was looked at in general but for the results of this report, the inclusion criteria was healthcare service in England as it just look ed at the healthcare service being provided within England. The exclusion criterion was healthcare service in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. For the first part of the report, the introduction: where the report looked at the history of the NHS. The resources used included looking at general management books looking at management theories. The classical theories of Max Weber, Frederic Taylor and Henri Fayol were the backbone of the NHS and that is why these were used. Another source to produce this paper was the Department of health (http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/index.htm) where the publications and reports about the NHS in general were looked at. This paper used a lot of publications produced by the Department of health and the NHS publications as these sources are reliable; these were seen as good foundation to work from. One of the main publications used was The NHS white paper: Equity and excellence: Liberating the NHS presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Health, this was a key entity in writing up this paper. As the paper didnt contract with experiments and clinical trials, it didnt look at a lot of statistics; the majority of its content was obtained from qualitative data. Results/ Discussion Having carried out the required literature searches and reading journals, reports and Department of Health Publications, results were gathered and have been shown below with the discussion of the key topics. The results look at each reform taken place in the NHS and then goes onto analyse the plans set by the new government. Having looked at the reforms and the new plans the paper than talks about efficiency, equity and quality related to each reform. Reforms in the healthcare service in England The healthcare service in the UK has undergone a number of reforms since its inception in 1948. Prior to 1948, healthcare service was provided in England but due to the increasing pressures for efficiency and quality in health services it lead to these developments and reforms in healthcare being provided. A more overtly management-oriented approach to the healthcare service delivery was adopted based on classical management theories to gain more control of the healthcare service in England. 16,17 Classical theories and Scientific Management: 1960s The NHS was based on the classical theories of Frederic Winslow Taylor, Henri Fayol and Max Weber. 16-19 Table 1: Frederic Winslow Taylors four main scientific management principles. Replacing rule-of-work thumb methods with methods based on a scientific of the tasks Scientifically train each individual rather than leave them to train themselves Cooperate with each worker to ensure that the scientific method is being followed Divide workload equally between managers and staff Table 2: Henri Fayols Modern Operational Management approach. Division of work- Specialization for efficiency Authority Responsibility- Both are related, the latter arising from the former. Discipline-Requires good superiors at all levels Unity of Command- Employee should receive orders from one superior only Unity of Direction- Each group of activities with the same objective must have one head and one plan Subordination of individual to general interest- When the two are found to differ, management must reconcile them Remuneration-Should be fair and satisfactory Centralization-Extent to which authority is concentrated or dispersed Scalar chain/line of authority-Needs to be sensible, clear and understood Order : Right thing/person in the right place Equity- Equal opportunity for everyone Stability of tenure- Unnecessary turnover is both the cause and effect of bad management Initiative- Thinking out and execution of a plan Thinking out and execution of a plan Table 3. Max Webers Bureaucratic approach. Power-Ability to get things done, often by the use of threats or sanctions Authority- Ability to get things done because of the position that justified someone in terms of legitimacy Formal approach Hierarchical authority Extensive roles and procedures- Uniformity of decisions and actions Job description- Clear-cut division of labour and High level of specialization Discipline These classical theories contributed a lot to the healthcare service in England and still do to this day.16-19 The classical writers thought of the NHS in terms of purpose and formal structure. They created a formal structure on which the NHS could run on. They also looked at job design, scientific selection and development of workers. The classical theories generally serve as a backbone to the present day NHS management. Although the classical theories made a big contribution to the healthcare service in England it had its limitations and wasnt the most effective way. One drawback was that it wasnt evidence based; it didnt look at the way staff did their tasks and didnt look at the well being of staff, the human and social aspects of work. It just treated them like machines. The theories didnt look at motivating the staff and developing them in their own interests, had they done this staffs work quality wouldve enhanced thus providing an efficient service to patients and overall improve the quality of healthcare service in England. Overall the classical theories were too concrete and fully based on rules and procedures. In terms of efficiency the theories bought a set way of running the healthcare service in England. Once the NHS was established it introduced equity as well as healthcare service was now available to anyone. The NHS was just established and with these set in place in the 1960s the qua lity of service would improve from now with further reforms to come. Salmon Report: 1960s One of the first reforms took place since the NHS was established was in the 1960s. The Salmon Report bought findings and changes which included that workload should be equally distributed between managers and practitioners.20 The NHS would also get rid of matrons and replace them with a hierarchy of nurse managers. The introduction of several additional layers to the management hierarchy; in order to improve efficiency in operating the NHS. This lead to responsibility being equally distributed and the service met its aims and objectives more efficiently. Another change was that nurse managers would contribute to the overall management of the service through the medium of consensus management teams and thus improve efficiency and quality within the NHS. Having nurse managers lead to them taking control of set responsibilities and helped in general running of tasks at ward level leading to an improvement in general quality in the healthcare service being provided. 1974 Reorganization: 1970s The aim of this reform was to attain greater integration of the healthcare service in order to provide more stability and increase efficiency. The reorganisation also introduced more central control in order to: 21 ensure policies were implemented improve accountability encourage delegation develop democratic decision-making process These changes lead to a more structured way for managers to follow and enhance the quality of the healthcare service. By the mid 1970s quality was improving but there were still concerns of equity in the NHS. There were still clear differences of health sufferers in terms of social class; figures showed that people in lower social classes more likely suffered from diseases. There were several possible explanations for these inequalities. Natural and social selection. This would depend on the view that people who are fittest are most likely to succeed in society, and classes reflect this degree of selection. Poverty leads to ill health, through nutrition, housing and environment. Cultural and behavioural explanations. There are differences in the diet and fitness of different social classes, and in certain habits like smoking. 22,23 Overall in the 1970s the quality of healthcare service was still improving, equity issues were still a concern and in terms of efficiency they were recuperating the NHS. The Griffiths Report: 1980s This reform was a major point in NHS history, the Griffiths Report identified problems such as the healthcare service was institutionally inactive and that the local health authorities were filled with directives without being given any clear procedures to follow.24 The Griffiths report stated that changes were difficult to achieve but gave recommendations to improve the NHS. It introduced a more formal and modern way of management. It gave increased participation for managers in setting and controlling budgets. The report also gave greater emphasis on cost awareness in order to improve efficiency. A Clear and quick decision-making process was introduced to improve quality of service provided to patients. The managers in local authorities were given a more clearly defined direction and the overall staffs were better informed.24 The Internal Market Working For Patients: 1990s Another reform in the 1990s took place, this bought a new dimension to the NHS; large publicly-owned hospitals could opt to become self-managed trusts. This meant that health services could be bought by private investors i.e. patients themselves thus allowing them to take control of the way they want the service. Even large GPs could become fund holders and be both purchasers and providers of care.25 This reform lead to introduction of greater flexibility thus allowing more effective matching of patients needs and care. Money followed the patients through the system of purchasing and providing of healthcare service, this led to equity being improved as patients had more selection of services. This reform led to higher competition in providing quality healthcare service, the costs decreased and the general quality increased. The NHS Plan 2000 The NHS Plan 2000 made key findings : the NHS is a 1940s system operating in the 21st century and that it lacked of national standards. It also said that there were barriers between staff and providing services. There were a lack of clear guidelines and the NHS structure has over-centralization.14 Plans to diminish problems and propose new plans such as introducing Modern Matrons to improve the management of services, a strong leader with clinical experience and with clear authority at ward level, improve efficiency by setting standards and controlling resources these were there aims.14,26 The figure below shows the comparison of the 1948 and the new NHS model outlining the key differences. Figure.4 the key difference between the 1948 model and The NHS Plan 2000 model 14 The NHS Plan 2000: Achievements This reform set out specific targets which were achieved in order to improve efficiency, equity and quality of healthcare service in England: Over 100 new hospitals by 2010 and 500 new one-stop primary care centres Clean wards and better hospital food 7,000 extra beds in hospitals Over 3,000 GP premises modernized Modern IT systems in every hospital and GP surgery 7,500 more consultants and 2,000 more GPs 20,000 extra nurses and 6,500 extra therapists Childcare support for NHS staff with 100 on-site nurseries.26 These targets were achieved in 2008 and it led to the improvement of efficiency as the number of GPs and consultants employed were increased. The modernisation of technology and IT systems led to quality of service being improved as high investment in high quality equipment made the NHS one of the worlds top quality service. Since 2000 NHS has improved the overall service and met its objectives. NHS Implications: Equity and excellence: Liberating the NHS With the new coalition government coming into election another set of reforms have been proposed as they hope to improve the overall healthcare service in England. The main aims and objectives to improve the healthcare service are varied and very detailed but to summarise it these are the points covered:15 Increase health spending in real terms in each year of this Parliament 15and also that there goal is an NHS which achieves results that are amongst the best in the world 15. However the government will uphold the foundation that the NHS was formed on; a comprehensive service, available to all, free at the point of use and based on clinical need, not the ability to pay 15. The government than goes into detail of what they arrange to initiate to make an efficient healthcare service: acknowledge the fact that patients come first and therefore will give them greater choice and control. An example of this is that a patient will be able to choose any GP practice, consultant, and choice of treatment consequently improving equity of the service. The government endeavours to develop the healthcare outcomes: set objectives such as reduce mortality and morbidity, increase safety, and improve patient experience and outcomes for all 15. By doing this they are ensuring they are driving efficiency and improving the service. In order to achieve the objectives that the government sets, the ability for service providers to have more autonomy, responsibility and accountability will be a means to achieving efficient results. A big change will be the establishment of a NHS Commissioning Board. The board will be accountable for making sure health outcomes are achieved, allocate resources and have the lead on quality improvement and to tackle inequalities that exist in the NHS. Overall the reforms in the NHS Paper 2010 will provide the NHS with greater incentives to increase efficiency, equity and quality. Efficiency The healthcare system in England has on the whole perceived a huge improvement in terms of efficiency since its inception in 1948. A system has been established where it endows with one of the best services in the world but there are still room for improvements. An analysis of the services gives evidence such as the NHS building 100 new hospitals since 2000, therefore improving the efficiency and allowing better access for patients. 27 Even though there continue to be a lack of quality and accessibility to services across the country. The patients havent been able to impose enough pressure to force improvements. The NHS need to give patients more control over the health services they have access to improve efficiency. In 2008 investment in the NHS as a whole rose from ÂÂ £43.9bn per year in 2000, when the NHS Plan was launched, to ÂÂ £92.6bn. another measurement of efficiency is looking at numbers of early deaths from cancer, coronary heart disease and suicide; they continue to fall as services improve; over 98% of patients at Accident and Emergency (AE) Departments are seen within 4 hours; and hospital waiting lists are lower than ever, with half a million fewer patients waiting since lists were at their peak.28 One key way to achieve the set objectives is to cut down NHS managements costs by 45% over the next four years enabling them to free up investment for further improvements.28 Much has been achieved during the last five years of investment and reforms. For example, the significant investment in NHS staff, along with more flexible working, is facilitating healthcare professionals to take advantage of the freedom thus improving their commitment to the NHS. NHS staff working flexibly and using improved technology are better able to respond to patients needs and changing expectations and are achieving improvements in quality and productivity across the system.27 Since 1948, the NHS budget on average has risen over 4% in real terms each year; this is something they hope to resolve as the NHS will face a sustained and substantial financial constraint if it continues. They hope to avoid the financial crisis that happened in the NHS in the 1970s. The NHS hopes to release up to ÂÂ £20 billion of efficiency savings by 2014, which will be reinvested to suppor Healthcare Reforms in England Issues of Efficiency Healthcare Reforms in England Issues of Efficiency The healthcare service in England attempts to improve the overall healthcare service have been ongoing through some of the most radical reforms since its inception as a comprehensive public service since 1948. The noticeable need of a free healthcare service was essential after the state of the country due to the world war. Once the NHS was established it saw many reforms led by diverse types of governments at different times. Despite the scale of the reforms they have preserved their core principle of A free service at the point of delivery 1 till this very day. Even though they have adopted the core principle they still face huge challenges; as demands and costs are still rising, the entirety of the service is increasingly being looked at. This paper looks at the reforms the NHS has been through and analyses each reform in the light of Efficiency: the capability of the NHS, whether the reform made the NHS more competent, Equity: bringing fairness and equal right for the patients as well as the staff, Quality: whether adapting the reforms improved the patients ability to acquire different types of healthcare services without any predicament and obtain high-quality healthcare services. Methodology This paper was conjured up by the use of reports published by NHS Publications website. Journals and studies on NHS reform via the scientific database PubMed were also utilized. To gain info on the theories the NHS was formed on, management theory books by Max Weber, Henri Fayol and Frederic Winslow Taylor were used. Results/Discussion Each reform improvised the NHS in many ways, in relation to Efficiency the NHS since its inception has seen major investments and new hospitals built, employment of up to date technology allowing more patients to be seen within an applicable time and budgets been controlled efficiently with the aim to reduce costs each year allowing the NHS to run efficiently. In terms of Equity after the publication of the Black report, the NHS has improved on giving equal opportunities to its minor ethnic groups of staff. Also the equal treatment of patients regardless of their social class has been improved since the Blair era. The NHS in terms of quality has become one of the world leading healthcare providers. Measuring their services against standards set by the NHS ensured that they are meeting the set standards. The major investment in staff in 2000 saw a number of lives saved in the past 10 years. The NHS has met quality standards that are accepted by its patients and valued as a first class service. Conclusion Overall the NHS has seen many reforms which have lead to the NHS becoming a world class service. Since the reforms in the 1960s to the latest plans of the new coalition government the NHS has improved immensely in terms of efficiency, equity and quality and the future also looks bright for the NHS. Introduction: Healthcare service in England was launched in 1948 with an aim to provide universal healthcare to its citizens which is free at the point of use and available to everyone based on need, not ability to pay 1. The NHS was established after World War II where the country needed a stable healthcare service 2. The initial idea was that no-one should be deterred from seeking health services by a lack of resources and the founder Aneurin Bevan: Minster of Health stated A free service at the point of delivery 3. Till this day they have been providing free healthcare service to the citizens of England. In 1948 Sir William Beveridge, a British Economist and a Social Reformer conferred details of his radical plans for economic and social reform in post-war Britain. Sir William proposed major healthcare service changes on the basis that the country needed the abolition of want before the enjoyment of comfort and suggested a scheme where every kind of medical treatment would be available for everybody. 1,3 Pre NHS There has been some form of state-funded provision of health and social care in England prior to the NHS for 400 years.4 Prior to a health system being formed, attaining healthcare service in Britain in the 1930s and 1940s was difficult. Life expectancy was very low and thousands of people died of infectious diseases like pneumonia, meningitis, tuberculosis, diphtheria, and polio each year.4 The poor never had access to medical treatment and they relied instead on dubious and sometimes dangerous home remedies. Either that or they relied on doctors who gave their services free to the poor patients. The Hospitals charged for treatment and although the poor were reimbursed and before they received treatment they had to pay.4 Figure 1 shows the life expectancy that has changed since the NHS was introduced. Figure 1.Life expectancy changes since 1840 5 The need for free healthcare was widely recognised, but it was impossible to achieve without the support or resources of the government. A study showed that experts believed and have written extensively on the reasons of why a health service was needed.6 These included: The appearance of a view that health care was essential, not something just imparted erratically by charity The drastic effects of the war that made it possible to have a massive change of the healthcare service being provided, rather than just an incremental alteration As younger members of the country were becoming increasingly educated in the medical profession they had a view of things could be handle in a more efficient way. The hospitals having financial problems, funds not sufficing.6 Having looked at the reasons to why a health service was needed the government made plans and core principles were established: 6 Regardless of persons status they were eligible for health care, even people temporarily residing or visiting the country.ÂÂ   People could be referred to any hospital. The healthcare service was financed almost 100% from central taxationÂÂ   Care was entirely free at the point of use6 The main achievement was that the poor who in the past went without medical treatment now had access to free healthcare.6 NHS today and NHS employment NHS is one of the largest organisations in the world with an annual budget of around ÂÂ £80 billion employing more than 1.7 million people and treating over one million people every 36 hours.7 In general, healthcare service being provided within England to every single citizen is a difficult commission to undertake and consequently the system needs efficient health personnels to help run the system economically. Today the view of the healthcare service in England is that the NHS is a world leader and provides first class service that other countries envy. Countries all over the world seek to learn from the comprehensive system of general practice, and its role as the medical home for patients, providing continuity of care and coordination.8 Other countries look at English NHS system and use them as a guideline to run their healthcare system. NHS Structure The healthcare service in England has been run in a structural way with the Secretary of state and Department of Health controlling the overall NHS in England. The secretary of state for health has the responsibility of reporting to the prime minister. There are10 Strategic Health Authorities (SHAs) in England which are controlled by the Department of Health, they oversee all the activities within the NHS and the SHAs supervise all the NHS trusts in its area. Primary care plays a major role in community healthcare and is central to the NHS. Services under NHS trust (Secondary Care) include Hospitals, Mental Health services, Learning disability services and Ambulances. The overall structure of the NHS is shown below in Figure 2. 9 Although this is the current NHS structure with the new government in power, changes are to follow. Figure.2 overall structure of the Healthcare system in England 5 NHS Reforms Since its inception in 1948 the NHS has seen many reforms in terms of managing the way they provide healthcare service. The DoH has a lot of control and influence the major decisions taken in the reforms. The overall expectations of Healthcare service in England are of a high calibre, which requisites high-quality management capacity.10 In the 1980s and early 1990s prominence was on recuperating management. The recent focal point has been on development of leadership within NHS. With the new government, new ideas and plans will be imposed to see improvements in quality of healthcare being provided, cut down on costs making it more efficient and in terms of equity provide equal service to everyone. Table 1 briefly enlists the reforms that have taken place since its inception in 1948. Table.1 Reforms in the NHS: 1948-2010 Period the reforms were in place Reform and theory of Management 1948- 1960 Managers as diplomats 1960s Scientific Management and the Salmon report 1970s Classical Management, Systems Approaches and the 1974 Reorganization 1980s The Griffiths report and Managerialism 1990s Working for Patients and the Internal Market 2000 The NHS Plan (DOH 2000) and the Third Way. 2010 NHS White Paper 2010: Equity and excellence: Liberating the NHS Healthcare service and Reforms in other Developed Countries Healthcare reforms within developed countries can be analyzed in order to compare whether the healthcare services in England have been successful in its bid to ensure efficiency, equity and quality. Attempts to handle reforms of the healthcare system in the European countries have been an ongoing process for 30 years. Although the reforms have taken throughout the 30 years in different ways, their main emphasis has been on improving the cost-effectiveness of the healthcare service. In the early 1980s the EU countries were looking at cost containment. The feature in the 1990s was to endorse efficiency in terms of introducing competition and markets in the healthcare system. Since 2000 the focus has switched to effectiveness; promoting various notions of healthcare in terms of quality.11 Over the course of the 20th century the countries of Europe have established significant success in improving the healthcare service for their citizens. However they still face challenges in the form of restraining costs, improving quality and providing universal healthcare access, these have put the European healthcare services under immense pressure.11 Looking at another OECD: USA, A report on A review of health care reform in the United States assessed whether the USA have been successful in providing healthcare. The findings showed that United States spent more per capita on health care than any other OECD country, yet its health outcomes lagged behind other countries.12 This shows they are struggling with efficiency issues and are still countering challenges in providing quality healthcare service that is expected from the citizens of the USA. Especially in the last few years Healthcare reform has been a major activity of the federal government, in order to revolutionize and develop the service overall. The 3 goals of optimizing cost, access and quality still remain a challenge within the healthcare society in the U.S.12 They concluded that USA still faced many challenges in running the national healthcare service, a key challenge they face is the utter complexity of the system, with its numerous public and private providers.12 Another OECD country reviewed in terms of healthcare service being provided and the reforms that have taken place is China. A report from on From a national, centrally planned health system to a system based on the market: lessons from China concluded: China is the country that has undergone the highest number of health care reforms. Since 1978, China saw many reforms and they also followed the way as the EU countries, with the healthcare system starting from governmental, centrally planned and a collective system to ending up as a heavily market influenced system. Now, thirty years later, the Chinese government openly concede that the reforms were unsuccessful and seek innovative and fresh directions.13 This illustrates that China is also in a healthcare crisis and looking to implement different strategies in order to gain control of Chinas Healthcare system. Having reviewed the healthcare service being endowed in these developed countries, it demonstrates that they are all on an identical level as the healthcare service being provided in England and all face similar challenges. All these developed countries are looking to develop the countries overall healthcare service in terms of efficiency, equity and quality. NHS Plan 2000 and the future of NHS Since the last reform: The NHS plan 2000 14, a lot has transformed in terms of funding and operating the healthcare system in England. Especially with the new coalition governments idea of cutting budgets it is a difficult time the NHS is going through and will necessitate a lot of expertise and world class management to get through todays financial and economical predicament. An additional indication that will be taken into deliberation is the election of the new plans set out in the NHS White Paper 2010. As the new coalition government has come into authority there have been huge changes to overall budgets for the public services and this possibly will have a consequence on the way the NHS operates in England. 15 The reforms have encompassed a significant impact on the organisation and deliverance of health care service in England. Wide array of transformations have been pioneered in an attempt to ensure the NHS is managed more resourcefully and effectively. This report will examine whether these reforms have on the whole improved the healthcare system in England in terms of efficiency, equity and quality and if the publics requirements have been convened. Aims: To examine the healthcare reforms in England since its inception and to assess whether these reforms have improved factors of efficiency, equity and quality in providing healthcare. Objectives: To review the reforms in the NHS since its inception in 1948 To examine whether these reforms improved efficiency, equity and quality of healthcare To assess the key features of healthcare reforms proposed by the current government and their implications on the NHS To put forward plans for the future of the NHS Methodology: A number of sources were consulted to conjure up this paper and examine the healthcare reforms in the NHS. Scientific search engines and databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar and Science Direct (Date accessed 20/10/10) were used to gain literature reviews but results from Google Scholar and Science Direct were dismissed as they were too vague and irrelevant to this topic. With PubMed following keywords were inserted Healthcare, Reforms and England. The data was also set from 1948 to 2010 when searching for reports as this would set the inclusion criteria. The reports and journals since 1948, when the NHS was established were used. Even though history before 1948 was looked at for study purposes, reports before NHS establishment; these were regarded as the exclusion criteria as reports werent looked at prior to 1948. Healthcare service within Britain was looked at in general but for the results of this report, the inclusion criteria was healthcare service in England as it just look ed at the healthcare service being provided within England. The exclusion criterion was healthcare service in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. For the first part of the report, the introduction: where the report looked at the history of the NHS. The resources used included looking at general management books looking at management theories. The classical theories of Max Weber, Frederic Taylor and Henri Fayol were the backbone of the NHS and that is why these were used. Another source to produce this paper was the Department of health (http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/index.htm) where the publications and reports about the NHS in general were looked at. This paper used a lot of publications produced by the Department of health and the NHS publications as these sources are reliable; these were seen as good foundation to work from. One of the main publications used was The NHS white paper: Equity and excellence: Liberating the NHS presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Health, this was a key entity in writing up this paper. As the paper didnt contract with experiments and clinical trials, it didnt look at a lot of statistics; the majority of its content was obtained from qualitative data. Results/ Discussion Having carried out the required literature searches and reading journals, reports and Department of Health Publications, results were gathered and have been shown below with the discussion of the key topics. The results look at each reform taken place in the NHS and then goes onto analyse the plans set by the new government. Having looked at the reforms and the new plans the paper than talks about efficiency, equity and quality related to each reform. Reforms in the healthcare service in England The healthcare service in the UK has undergone a number of reforms since its inception in 1948. Prior to 1948, healthcare service was provided in England but due to the increasing pressures for efficiency and quality in health services it lead to these developments and reforms in healthcare being provided. A more overtly management-oriented approach to the healthcare service delivery was adopted based on classical management theories to gain more control of the healthcare service in England. 16,17 Classical theories and Scientific Management: 1960s The NHS was based on the classical theories of Frederic Winslow Taylor, Henri Fayol and Max Weber. 16-19 Table 1: Frederic Winslow Taylors four main scientific management principles. Replacing rule-of-work thumb methods with methods based on a scientific of the tasks Scientifically train each individual rather than leave them to train themselves Cooperate with each worker to ensure that the scientific method is being followed Divide workload equally between managers and staff Table 2: Henri Fayols Modern Operational Management approach. Division of work- Specialization for efficiency Authority Responsibility- Both are related, the latter arising from the former. Discipline-Requires good superiors at all levels Unity of Command- Employee should receive orders from one superior only Unity of Direction- Each group of activities with the same objective must have one head and one plan Subordination of individual to general interest- When the two are found to differ, management must reconcile them Remuneration-Should be fair and satisfactory Centralization-Extent to which authority is concentrated or dispersed Scalar chain/line of authority-Needs to be sensible, clear and understood Order : Right thing/person in the right place Equity- Equal opportunity for everyone Stability of tenure- Unnecessary turnover is both the cause and effect of bad management Initiative- Thinking out and execution of a plan Thinking out and execution of a plan Table 3. Max Webers Bureaucratic approach. Power-Ability to get things done, often by the use of threats or sanctions Authority- Ability to get things done because of the position that justified someone in terms of legitimacy Formal approach Hierarchical authority Extensive roles and procedures- Uniformity of decisions and actions Job description- Clear-cut division of labour and High level of specialization Discipline These classical theories contributed a lot to the healthcare service in England and still do to this day.16-19 The classical writers thought of the NHS in terms of purpose and formal structure. They created a formal structure on which the NHS could run on. They also looked at job design, scientific selection and development of workers. The classical theories generally serve as a backbone to the present day NHS management. Although the classical theories made a big contribution to the healthcare service in England it had its limitations and wasnt the most effective way. One drawback was that it wasnt evidence based; it didnt look at the way staff did their tasks and didnt look at the well being of staff, the human and social aspects of work. It just treated them like machines. The theories didnt look at motivating the staff and developing them in their own interests, had they done this staffs work quality wouldve enhanced thus providing an efficient service to patients and overall improve the quality of healthcare service in England. Overall the classical theories were too concrete and fully based on rules and procedures. In terms of efficiency the theories bought a set way of running the healthcare service in England. Once the NHS was established it introduced equity as well as healthcare service was now available to anyone. The NHS was just established and with these set in place in the 1960s the qua lity of service would improve from now with further reforms to come. Salmon Report: 1960s One of the first reforms took place since the NHS was established was in the 1960s. The Salmon Report bought findings and changes which included that workload should be equally distributed between managers and practitioners.20 The NHS would also get rid of matrons and replace them with a hierarchy of nurse managers. The introduction of several additional layers to the management hierarchy; in order to improve efficiency in operating the NHS. This lead to responsibility being equally distributed and the service met its aims and objectives more efficiently. Another change was that nurse managers would contribute to the overall management of the service through the medium of consensus management teams and thus improve efficiency and quality within the NHS. Having nurse managers lead to them taking control of set responsibilities and helped in general running of tasks at ward level leading to an improvement in general quality in the healthcare service being provided. 1974 Reorganization: 1970s The aim of this reform was to attain greater integration of the healthcare service in order to provide more stability and increase efficiency. The reorganisation also introduced more central control in order to: 21 ensure policies were implemented improve accountability encourage delegation develop democratic decision-making process These changes lead to a more structured way for managers to follow and enhance the quality of the healthcare service. By the mid 1970s quality was improving but there were still concerns of equity in the NHS. There were still clear differences of health sufferers in terms of social class; figures showed that people in lower social classes more likely suffered from diseases. There were several possible explanations for these inequalities. Natural and social selection. This would depend on the view that people who are fittest are most likely to succeed in society, and classes reflect this degree of selection. Poverty leads to ill health, through nutrition, housing and environment. Cultural and behavioural explanations. There are differences in the diet and fitness of different social classes, and in certain habits like smoking. 22,23 Overall in the 1970s the quality of healthcare service was still improving, equity issues were still a concern and in terms of efficiency they were recuperating the NHS. The Griffiths Report: 1980s This reform was a major point in NHS history, the Griffiths Report identified problems such as the healthcare service was institutionally inactive and that the local health authorities were filled with directives without being given any clear procedures to follow.24 The Griffiths report stated that changes were difficult to achieve but gave recommendations to improve the NHS. It introduced a more formal and modern way of management. It gave increased participation for managers in setting and controlling budgets. The report also gave greater emphasis on cost awareness in order to improve efficiency. A Clear and quick decision-making process was introduced to improve quality of service provided to patients. The managers in local authorities were given a more clearly defined direction and the overall staffs were better informed.24 The Internal Market Working For Patients: 1990s Another reform in the 1990s took place, this bought a new dimension to the NHS; large publicly-owned hospitals could opt to become self-managed trusts. This meant that health services could be bought by private investors i.e. patients themselves thus allowing them to take control of the way they want the service. Even large GPs could become fund holders and be both purchasers and providers of care.25 This reform lead to introduction of greater flexibility thus allowing more effective matching of patients needs and care. Money followed the patients through the system of purchasing and providing of healthcare service, this led to equity being improved as patients had more selection of services. This reform led to higher competition in providing quality healthcare service, the costs decreased and the general quality increased. The NHS Plan 2000 The NHS Plan 2000 made key findings : the NHS is a 1940s system operating in the 21st century and that it lacked of national standards. It also said that there were barriers between staff and providing services. There were a lack of clear guidelines and the NHS structure has over-centralization.14 Plans to diminish problems and propose new plans such as introducing Modern Matrons to improve the management of services, a strong leader with clinical experience and with clear authority at ward level, improve efficiency by setting standards and controlling resources these were there aims.14,26 The figure below shows the comparison of the 1948 and the new NHS model outlining the key differences. Figure.4 the key difference between the 1948 model and The NHS Plan 2000 model 14 The NHS Plan 2000: Achievements This reform set out specific targets which were achieved in order to improve efficiency, equity and quality of healthcare service in England: Over 100 new hospitals by 2010 and 500 new one-stop primary care centres Clean wards and better hospital food 7,000 extra beds in hospitals Over 3,000 GP premises modernized Modern IT systems in every hospital and GP surgery 7,500 more consultants and 2,000 more GPs 20,000 extra nurses and 6,500 extra therapists Childcare support for NHS staff with 100 on-site nurseries.26 These targets were achieved in 2008 and it led to the improvement of efficiency as the number of GPs and consultants employed were increased. The modernisation of technology and IT systems led to quality of service being improved as high investment in high quality equipment made the NHS one of the worlds top quality service. Since 2000 NHS has improved the overall service and met its objectives. NHS Implications: Equity and excellence: Liberating the NHS With the new coalition government coming into election another set of reforms have been proposed as they hope to improve the overall healthcare service in England. The main aims and objectives to improve the healthcare service are varied and very detailed but to summarise it these are the points covered:15 Increase health spending in real terms in each year of this Parliament 15and also that there goal is an NHS which achieves results that are amongst the best in the world 15. However the government will uphold the foundation that the NHS was formed on; a comprehensive service, available to all, free at the point of use and based on clinical need, not the ability to pay 15. The government than goes into detail of what they arrange to initiate to make an efficient healthcare service: acknowledge the fact that patients come first and therefore will give them greater choice and control. An example of this is that a patient will be able to choose any GP practice, consultant, and choice of treatment consequently improving equity of the service. The government endeavours to develop the healthcare outcomes: set objectives such as reduce mortality and morbidity, increase safety, and improve patient experience and outcomes for all 15. By doing this they are ensuring they are driving efficiency and improving the service. In order to achieve the objectives that the government sets, the ability for service providers to have more autonomy, responsibility and accountability will be a means to achieving efficient results. A big change will be the establishment of a NHS Commissioning Board. The board will be accountable for making sure health outcomes are achieved, allocate resources and have the lead on quality improvement and to tackle inequalities that exist in the NHS. Overall the reforms in the NHS Paper 2010 will provide the NHS with greater incentives to increase efficiency, equity and quality. Efficiency The healthcare system in England has on the whole perceived a huge improvement in terms of efficiency since its inception in 1948. A system has been established where it endows with one of the best services in the world but there are still room for improvements. An analysis of the services gives evidence such as the NHS building 100 new hospitals since 2000, therefore improving the efficiency and allowing better access for patients. 27 Even though there continue to be a lack of quality and accessibility to services across the country. The patients havent been able to impose enough pressure to force improvements. The NHS need to give patients more control over the health services they have access to improve efficiency. In 2008 investment in the NHS as a whole rose from ÂÂ £43.9bn per year in 2000, when the NHS Plan was launched, to ÂÂ £92.6bn. another measurement of efficiency is looking at numbers of early deaths from cancer, coronary heart disease and suicide; they continue to fall as services improve; over 98% of patients at Accident and Emergency (AE) Departments are seen within 4 hours; and hospital waiting lists are lower than ever, with half a million fewer patients waiting since lists were at their peak.28 One key way to achieve the set objectives is to cut down NHS managements costs by 45% over the next four years enabling them to free up investment for further improvements.28 Much has been achieved during the last five years of investment and reforms. For example, the significant investment in NHS staff, along with more flexible working, is facilitating healthcare professionals to take advantage of the freedom thus improving their commitment to the NHS. NHS staff working flexibly and using improved technology are better able to respond to patients needs and changing expectations and are achieving improvements in quality and productivity across the system.27 Since 1948, the NHS budget on average has risen over 4% in real terms each year; this is something they hope to resolve as the NHS will face a sustained and substantial financial constraint if it continues. They hope to avoid the financial crisis that happened in the NHS in the 1970s. The NHS hopes to release up to ÂÂ £20 billion of efficiency savings by 2014, which will be reinvested to suppor

An experiment to find out how changing the concentration of acid :: GCSE Chemistry Coursework Investigation

An experiment to find out how changing the concentration of acid affects the rate of reaction Planning Aim: I am to find out how changing the concentration of the hydrochloric acid (HCL) affects the rate of reaction. The hydrochloric acid will be reacting with marble chips (small, medium, large). During my experiment I will be changing one variable. This will be the concentration of the acid. I will use the concentration of HCL from 0.5 molar/dm3 to 3.0 molar/dm3. I will use 3grams of marble chips for every size of chip. By doing this I will find out if the rate of reaction is quicker or slower using a different concentration of acid. The equation I will be using is: CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H20 (l) + CO2 (g) Calcium Hydrochloric Calcium Water Carbon Carbonate Acid Chloride Dioxide Method Firstly I must get the correct equipment and assemble it safely and correctly. To do this I will fill a water tray half full with water. Then I will collect 3g medium chips. I will measure 30cm3 of hydrochloric acid. I will connect the delivery tube to the measuring cylinder which is turned over which will be full with water. This is shown on my diagram. I will begin timing using a stopwatch and record the results every 10 seconds for 1 minute. I will use 0.5molar/dm3 to 3.0molar/dm3 of hydrochloric acid and record 3 sets of results and then I will take an average. Fair Test In order to make my experiment safe I will change only one thing. I will be changing the concentration of the acid. Everything else will remain the same through out the experiment. I will use the same equipment and do the experiment during the same lesson where I can. This can be important because room temperature can increase the rate of reaction. The temperature could be higher on a certain day and affect my results. Background Information Rates of Reaction * Increasing the temperature increases the rate of a chemical reaction. * Some chemical reactions are fast and others are slow. A fast reaction could be a rocket exploding, and a slow reaction is metal rusting. * Rates of reaction can be measured by finding out how quickly a product is formed or how quickly a reactant is used up. * Examples of measuring reaction rates include measurement of the volume of gas formed, and measurement of the loss in mass when a gas is given off. How does surface area affect a chemical reaction? If one of the reactants is a solid, the surface area of the solid will

Forever 21

Forever 21: Dealing with America’s Fear of Aging and Death Abstract It is estimated by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention that there will be 71 million U. S. adults over the aged of 65 by 2030 (CDC, 2011, May 11). It can be certain, as was with their predecessors, that the geriatric journey for these adults will be filled with multiple anti-aging face creams and miracle hair growth products as they reluctantly cross over to the last stage of their lives.As shown not only through our media and social interactions’ growing old is not the popular choice. Ironically, the reality is that aging and dying is just as significant as our first breath. It is a journey made by everyone and everything though it is fought with a resistance that cannot be denied. The basis of this paper will discuss the preconceptions and barriers, whether psychological or societal, that is linked with aging, and steadfast approaches that can be used to cope with the aging process and the r eality that death is eminent.Keywords: ageism, aging, death, coping, geriatric, fear, quality of life Forever 21: Dealing with America’s Fear of Aging and Death A study performed by the National Consumer’s League reported that approximately 90 million Americans purchase anti-aging products or have surgical procedures performed to ward off the visible signs of aging each year (Nelson, 2005). As the baby boomer generation moves into their senior years, they may not be prepared for the psychological challenges that their predecessors experienced before them (Daniel, 1994).As Todd Nelson describes in his article, Ageism: Prejudice Against Our Feared Future Self, the old are treated as â€Å"second-class citizens with nothing to offer society† (Nelson, 2005, p. 209). A research model concluded that older persons in the United States were perceived as â€Å"warm, but incompetent† (Nelson, 2005, p. 215). Research suggests that the stereotyping of the older popul ation is much more severe than originally thought, making it necessary for further research to find ways to reduce the disdain towards aging (Nelson, 2005).The negative attitude associated with aging has not always been this way. Historically, older individuals were once revered, and admired as they were considered wise and experienced. They were the historians of the past, teaching the customs and values to the new, emerging generations (Nelson, 2005). The degeneration towards the old occurred by way of technology through the invention of the printing press which allowed duplication of stories in mass distribution, making the elder’s status less significant.Another factor was the industrial revolution as progress dictated where families lived. This new mobility requirement did not settle well with the less adaptive and older generation, breaking apart the traditional family structure in order to secure employment elsewhere. Growing companies needed strength and adaptability during that time so the younger generation excelled professionally whereas experienced, older applicants were less valued. The advancements in medicine also extended a person’s life expectancy, prolonging the caregiver’s responsibility to its elder (Nelson, 2005).In Todd Nelson’s article, Ageism: Prejudice against Our Feared Future self, he discusses the social prejudices associated with aging, and the subtle ways those prejudices are conveyed. His primary focus is our aging population of baby boomers, and how they will be affected by being stereotyped in ways that are patronizing and degrading (Nelson, 2005). In an effort to thwart such negative attitudes, Jere Daniel, the author of Learning to Love Growing Old, describes a â€Å"vanguard† movement that is committed to changing the way aging is perceived.These individuals have evoked the term, â€Å"conscious aging† which promotes awareness and acceptance of the aging process as we move through ea ch stage of life. The supporters of this movement confer that aging is not a curable disease, and it cannot be solved by spending billions of dollars on preventing its process or its end (Daniel, 1994). Another supporter of changing the way aging is conveyed is author, Margaret Cruiksbank, of the book, Learning to be Old. In her book she is a proponent of changing the way the aging process is described. Her position is that the underlying meaning of popular terms to describe aging weakens its value.She denotes that the term â€Å"successful aging† is a false phrase for the elderly as it â€Å"masks both the wish to continue mid-life indefinitely and the white, Middle-class, Western values of researchers, causing them to emphasize productivity, effectiveness and independence† (Cruiksbank, 2009, p. 2). She also concludes that the term â€Å"productive† aging symbolizes â€Å"economic usefulness and social conformity† (Cruiksbank, 2009, p. 2), especially for the female gender. More importantly, these terms can be used to measure. This ability to measure is subjective to the questioner and an individual’s self-worth.She suggests the term â€Å"aging comfortably† as it signifies easiness, and a â€Å"faint hint† of pleasurable self-indulgence which may not have been possible in younger years (Cruiksbank, 2009, p. 3). There has been decades of research examining what it referred to as â€Å"automatic categorization† (Nelson, 2005. p. 207). Researchers describe this as an essential trait in humans that is a primal response to physical characteristics, such as race, gender, and age, that automatically prompts emotional responses and prejudices. This type of categorization sets the foundation for stereotyping (Nelson, 2005).The aging community is faced with an array of negative stereotypes that affects their independence as well as their self-perception. Many times the negativity is hidden, almost overlooked as it in an unconscious gesture unbeknownst to either participant. Nelson discusses the use of patronizing language as a form of negative socialization. He states that researchers define its usage as â€Å"overaccomodation and baby talk† (Nelson, 2005, p. 209). This type of language is based on the stereotype that individuals suffer from hearing loss to a limited or degenerate intellect as a result of growing old (Nelson, 2005).Another form of stereotyping that has a debilitating effect on the aging adult’s self-esteem is a term called â€Å"infantilization† (Nelson, 2005, p. 210). This is described as a process that occurs over time as the aging adult relinquishes their independence, eventually leaving them to believe that they can no longer do for themselves. The aging adult is victim in believing that they are â€Å"old†, and subsequently begins to assume behaviorisms that depict old age such as moving and thinking more slowly. Researchers have found that t his is prevalent in elders that have been over accommodated.The end result is that it not only affects the elder person but burdens their caretaker as well (Nelson, 2005). Another prejudice that is common is segregation of the old (Cruiksbank, 2009). Cruiksbank notes that even people over sixty five have a disdain for their peers, saying â€Å"they do not want to be around all those people† which may be their way of unconsciously avoiding their own mortality (Cruiksbank, 2009, p. 10). She states that distancing themselves may be a way they preserve their autonomy. Cruiksbank sees this as a form of denial, and also counterproductive as she eels solidarity needs to be exemplified by the old especially in this time of their lives. Gereontological research has also found other common patterns among the elderly and their peers. In another attempt to demonstrate independence, the elderly tend to generalize geriatric health issues. They segregate themselves by expressing how fortuna te they are not to be suffering the same doomed fate (Cruiksbank, 2009). All forms of media reinforce negative stereotypes associated with aging (Daniel, 1994). By as early as six years old, negative stereotypes have already formed about aging.These stereotypes continue throughout our lives, and are subconsciously accepted without question. Daniel concludes that society has no role models that favor growing old. A nursing home ad with a dialogue that emulates the aging parent as a problem or burden further acerbates the stigma. Culture and media are designed to postpone the evitable as it is geared towards staying young, and delivers that message from fashion to health (Daniel, 1994). The result of these stereotypes is that as we age, impending doom invades the individual’s thoughts.In an effort to conform to culture’s idea of individualism, the aging population perpetually seeks an elusive youth, thereby denying their mind and bodies the right to age (Daniel, 1994). I t is not surprising then as the body begins to breakdown, that the aging person feels embarrassed and insignificant (Cruikshank, 2009). There is an ongoing movement to re-adjust society’s perception of what it means to age (Daniel, 1994). In an effort to shift the mindset of America’s aging, non-institutionalized studies have been done in American communities to determine the intellectual and cognitive effects of their aging population.The results concluded that â€Å"physical and mental decline is not evitable† Daniel, 1994). As the aging population grasps at their â€Å"desire to have meaning† in their lives, more attention needs to be focused on the positive influences that can enhance their daily existence. These influences include a positive attitude along with making healthy choices for themselves such as food, physical activity and recreation (Kerschner and Pegues, 1998). One way to improve the aging process is to be proactive in developing a healt hy lifestyle that includes good eating habits and physical activity.Research has concluded that the mind is a powerful tool in creating reality so protecting one’s health can be a precept to a fighting off future ailments (Kerschner and Pegues, 1998). The choice to give back to the community creates a meaningful and positive response in many ways. The benefit of socially connecting in a structured atmosphere lends opportunity to share not only wisdom but to develop new relationships that otherwise would not have occurred (Kerschner and Pegues, 1998).Studies have concluded that people who remain active have a clearer sense of who they are and what value they hold in society as well as their community (Kerschner and Pegues, 1998). For every beginning, there must be an end. There is term called vertical axis which describes the mind-body experience when an infant first enters the world. It is believed that prior to a person’s birth, the mind and body are not aware of each other but as soon as they arrive, both are encapsulated by â€Å"sensation and emotion† as the two entities meet for the first time (Carvalho, 2008, p. 4).With the help of a mother’s touch, their union becomes a â€Å"seamless ensemble† (Carvalho, 2008, p. 4). The two live together, as one, for many years. It is not until the last stage of life, do they find themselves encapsulated by â€Å"sensation and emotion† again as now they have grown apart, separated as the aging body or mind is no longer able to oblige the other. They spend the rest of their days laboring until they can agree to leave together, in death. Fear of aging can ignite or dim the remainder of a person’s life. There is an array of products, books, and doctors promising new ways to reinvent the old self.In America, we are driven by the desire to stay young and because of this truth; the aging person experiences certain prejudices. Though, despite the adversity, aging can be a cata lyst to many wonderful and positive experiences that could only happen because one is old. One outdated novelty, wisdom, is just waiting to be reinvented by today’s aging population, and it would nice to see it be born again. * * * * * * * References Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011, May 11). Cdc. Retrieved from http://www. cdc. gov/chronicdisease/resources/publications/AAG/aging. tm Jere Daniel. (September 1, 1994). Psychology Today. In Learning to Love Growing Old. Retrieved October 1, 2012, from http://www. psychologytoday. com/articles/199409/learning-love-growing-old. Cruikshank, M. (2009). Learning to be old, gender, culture, and aging. Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc. Kerschner, H. , & Pegues, J. A. M. (1998). Productive aging: a quality of life agenda. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 98(12), 1445. Retrieved October 1, 2012 from http://go. galegroup. com. ezproxy. liberty. edu:2048/ps/i. do? id=GALE%7CA53479831&v=2. &u=vic_liberty&it=r&p=AONE &sw=w Nelson, T. D. (2005), Ageism: Prejudice Against Our Feared Future Self. Journal of Social Issues, 61:  207–221. doi:  10. 1111/j. 1540-4560. 2005. 00402. x Retrieved October 1, 2012 from http://onlinelibrary. wiley. com/doi/10. 1111/j. 1540-4560. 2005. 00402. x/full Carvalho, R. (2008), The final challenge: ageing, dying, individuation. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 53:  1–18. doi:  10. 1111/j. 1468-5922. 2007. 00699. x Retrieved October 1, 2012, from http://onlinelibrary. wiley. com. ezproxy. liberty. edu:2048/doi/10. 1111/j. 1468-5922. 2007. 00699. x/abstract

Agrarian Reform: a Struggle for Social Justice

The paper entitled â€Å"Agrarian Reform: A Struggle for Social Justice† aims to give the current status of agrarian reform in the Philippines. It also aims to provide the struggle of Filipinos for social justice in the implementation of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP). This paper aims to explain why land reform is slow here in our country. This will also try to shed light on what agrarian reform is and will give the clear and precise Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law. Furthermore, this paper will also tackle the issues involving the fairness of social justice in the agrarian reform. A part of this paper is also given for the land conversions and other ways to circumvent CARP.OutlineI. Introduction & Objectives A. Specific objectives II. Background Information A. Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) in the Philippines 1. History 2. Definition 3. Purpose B. Social Justice in the Philippines 1. History 2. Definition 3. Purpose III. Analysis & Discussion A. Issues on the agrarian reform implementation in the Philippines B. Reasons for the slow implementation of agrarian reform C. Land Conversions and other ways to circumvent CARP IV.Conclusion V. References Cornista, L. B. (1987). The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program: An Analysis of its Policies and Processes. Laguna: University of the Philippines.Lopez, A. P. (2003). Batas: The Uncompleted Historic Mandate, Quezon City: DAR.Sebucao, J. T. (1995). The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) as critically viewed by the DAR officials and beneficiaries: its economic and educational contribution.Annotated Bibliography1. The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program : an analysis of its policies and processesThis book provides information about the policies and processes of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program.2. Batas: The Uncompleted Historic MandateThis book is about Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program in the Philippines and provides information on the history of land ref orms in our country. This also provides information on the government policies regarding land reform in our country.3. The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) as critically viewed by the DAR officials and beneficiariesThis book provides the analysis of DAR officials and beneficiaries on what the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) is.

Historical Timeline of the Animal Rights Movement

Historical Timeline of the Animal Rights Movement This timeline is an overview of some of the major events in the modern animal rights movement. Concern for animal suffering is not a new or modern idea. The ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures advocate a vegetarian diet for ethical reasons. The ideology has evolved continuously over millennia, but many animal activists point to the publication of â€Å"Animal Liberation† in 1975 as the catalyst for the modern American animal rights movement. Early Events and Legislation 1635: First known animal protection legislation passes, in Ireland, An Act against plowing by the tayle, and pulling the wooll off living sheep.   1641: The Massachusetts colonys Body of Liberties includes regulations against Tirranny or Crueltie towards animals. 1687: Japan reintroduces a ban on eating meat and killing animals.   1780: English philosopher Jeremy Bentham argues for better treatment of animals. 19th Century 1822: British Parliament passes Act to Prevent the Cruel and Improper Treatment of Cattle. 1824: The first Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is founded in England, by Richard Martin, Arthur Broome, and William Wilberforce. 1835: The first Cruelty to Animal Acts is passed in Britain.   1866: The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals is founded by New Yorker  Henry Bergh. 1875: The National Anti-Vivisection Society is established in Britain by Frances Power Cobbe.   1892: English social reformer Henry Stephens Salt publishes Animals Rights: Considered in Relation to Social Progress. 20th Century 1944: English animal rights advocate Donald Watson founds the Vegan Society in Britain.   1975:  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Animal Liberation,† by philosopher Peter Singer is published. 1979:  Ã‚  Animal Legal Defense Fund is established, and National Anti-Vivisection Society establishes World Lab Animal Day, on April 24. The day has evolved into World Laboratory Animal Week. 1980:  People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) is founded and â€Å"Animal Factories† by attorney Jim Mason and philosopher Peter Singer is published. 1981:  Farm Animal Reform Movement is officially founded. 1983:  Farm Animal Reform Movement establishes World Farm Animals Day on October 2 and â€Å"The Case for Animal Rights,† by philosopher Tom Regan is published. 1985:  The first annual Great American Meatout is organized by Farm Animal Reform Movement. 1986:  Fur Free Friday, an annual nation-wide fur protest on the day after Thanksgiving, begins; and  Farm Sanctuary is founded. 1987:  California high school student Jennifer Graham makes national headlines when she refuses to dissect a frog and  Diet for a New America by John Robbins is published. 1989:  Avon stops testing their products on animals, and  In Defense of Animals launches their campaign against Proctor Gamble’s animal testing. 1990:  Revlon stops testing their products on animals. 1992:  Animal Enterprise Protection Act is passed. 1993:  General Motors stops using live animals in crash tests and  The Great Ape Project is founded by Peter Singer and Paola Cavalieri. 1994:  Tyke the elephant goes on a rampage, killing her trainer and escaping from the circus before being gunned down by police. 1995: Compassion Over Killing is founded by Erica Meier. 1996:  Vegetarian activist and former cattle rancher Howard Lyman appears on Oprah Winfrey’s talk show, leading to a defamation lawsuit filed by Texas Cattlemen. 1997:  PETA releases an undercover video showing animal abuse by Huntington Life Sciences. 1998:  A jury finds in favor of Lyman and Winfrey in the defamation lawsuit filed by Texas Cattlemen, and an investigation by The Humane Society of the US reveals that Burlington Coat Factory is selling products made from dog and cat fur. 21st Century 2001: Compassion Over Killing conducts an open rescue at a battery hen facility, documenting abuses and rescuing eight hens. 2002:  Dominion by Matthew Scully is published, and  McDonald’s settles a class-action lawsuit over their non-vegetarian french fries. 2004:  Clothing chain Forever 21 promises to stop selling fur. 2005:  The US Congress pulls funding for inspections of horse meat. 2006:  The SHAC 7 are convicted under the Animal Enterprise Protection Act;  Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act is passed, and an investigation by the Humane Society of the US reveals that items labeled as â€Å"faux† fur at Burlington Coat Factory are made of real fur. 2007:  Horse slaughter ends in the United States, but live horses continue to be exported for slaughter,  Barbaro dies at the Preakness. 2009:  The European Union bans cosmetics testing and bans the sale or import of seal products. 2010:  A killer whale at SeaWorld kills his trainer, Dawn Brancheau.  SeaWorld is  fined $70,000  by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration.   2011:  National Institute of Health stops funding of new experiments on chimpanzees;  President Obama and Congress legalize horse slaughter for human consumption in the US. As of spring of 2014, no horse slaughterhouses have opened. 2012:  Iowa passes the nations fourth ag-gag law;  An international convention of neuroscientists declares that non-human animals have consciousness. The declarations main author goes vegan. The Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness is published in Britain, which states that many nonhuman animals possess the neurological structures to generate consciousness.   2013:  The documentary Blackfish reaches a mass audience, causing widespread  public criticism of SeaWorld. 2014: India bans cosmetic testing on animals, the first Asian country to do so. 2015-2016: SeaWorld announces it will end its controversial orca shows and breeding program.   2017: The Appropriations Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives  votes  27 to 25 in favor of re-opening the practice of horse slaughter. Doris Lin, Esq.  is an animal rights attorney and Director of Legal Affairs for the Animal Protection League of NJ.

Legalization of Drugs essays

Legalization of Drugs essays "There is much hysteria about drugs and drug use in this country and much misinformation. It is time we got rid of both, put drugs and drug abuse in their proper perspective and go on with our lives." Richard Lawrence Miller, The case for Legalizing Drugs. I couldn't agree more with historian and author Richard Lawrence. However, in order for us, citizens, to understand our nations drug war, in particular legalization of marijuana, we need to understand the facts known by researchers yet ignored by our government. "The first modern marijuana experiments" performed by Andrew Weil proved that marijuana users "psychological" reactions are created entirely by set and setting rather than by pharmacological action. In other words, depending where the user is at is how he'll react; the drug itself has nothing to do with how the user reacts to it. Basically, the user will full sensations, but wont know how to use them. Therefore, it they will mimic or act like someone else taking the drug at the time! Furthermore, marijuana users across our country use it for many purposes-to relax, concentrate, stimulate, inspire-basically producing whatever affects the user wants at the time. Furthermore, if the user, not the drug, wants to produce "violent stimulation" those user "wanting such effects may feel them"; which may explain "redefer madness" in the 1930s. Hey, 30 years later users wanted it for relaxing and mellowness purposes and they got it! So you can clearly see anyone who blames psychological and violent threats on marijuana are absolutely wrong; blame the person note the drug! Also, marijuana's safety can be measured by its "therapeutic ratio", "the difference between the size of dose needed for the desired effect and the size that produces poisoning." And you know guys; marijuana is so safe that the therapeutic ration hasn't even been found, although "it has been estimated in the 1,0 ...

NFL Hater Alternative Ways to Spend Super Bowl Sunday

NFL Hater Alternative Ways to Spend Super Bowl Sunday Super Bowl Sunday! Bread and circuses, bread and circuses! Not really into it? Thats not a problem and theres nothing wrong with you. Super Bowl haters are no more considered abnormal, non-conformists and aliens. Its not your fault that unlike millions of Americans you know better than sitting in front of TV eating junk food, pretending to understand whats going on and in fact just coming for food and drinking games. If you are not going for a Super Bowl Party youve got to fill your Sunday with some alternative plans (cause all your friends and relatives and acquaintances will probably be watching football). Alas, we’ve put together quite a list of things you can try on Super Bowl Sunday. Fear not. It’s not the average, â€Å"Go play some Frisbee golf† list of alternatives. Alternative #1: Do Something Different In reality this should become a personal philosophy of yours from here on out. Did you do the same stuff today that you did yesterday? How about the day before that? It’s time to burst out of your comfort bubble. Do something that makes you uncomfortable. Do something out of the ordinary for â€Å"someone like you.† Here’s a thought, do something you try to avoid. Or, something you’ve never done yet out of fear (nothing bad or illegal). Why do it this Sunday? Super Bowl happens every year. Pretty soon the roman numerals will reach a point where absolutely no one has a clue what number it is (we may have already reached this point). But your life is only going to happen this one, very brief and fleeting, time. And remember youve dreamt about the day when you have nothing to do and nobody is bothering you? Well, thats the day, so use it to do something you wont regret about. Alternative #2: Go Knit Something! Just kidding. Alternative #3: Watch TED Talks All Day You can do everything that the Super Bowl people are doing, just change up the programming to something more â€Å"progressive†. So chips, BBQ wings, a gargantuan hi-def plasma TV, and a bunch of high achievers (99% of which couldn’t make it through try outs in middle school). Youll learn lots of useful, have mixed emotions, enrich your outlook with fresh ideas. TED talks are awesome, mind-blowing and inspiring. Pretty close to the Super Bowl, except no one’s wearing helmets. If you are not that much into educational programs like TED, you are welcome to replace it with your favourite TV series or old movies youve always wanted to see. Alternative #4: Pretend The World’s Ending†¦ The idea appeared first in the smosh.com article a couple years ago, but it is still relevant. If you live in a big (or small) sports-nut town, then the streets, movie theatres, and pretty much everywhere else but the sports bars should be empty during the Super Bowl. You could dress up like a medical patient that just woke up out of a coma into the aftermath of the apocalypse where only roaming bands of renegades and zombies still lurk around every corner. Then, just start wandering around. Just remember: â€Å"It’s fun to pretend, but make sure you dont get overzealous and start looting because this apocalypse is only going to happen until the game is over and you will go to a very real jail.† Alternative #5: Sleep The semester has only started and youve got lots of sleepless nights ahead. Whats more, New Years wasn’t that long ago. And not to mention that students are always sleep deprived. You deserve some rest, and thats the day you can sleep through with no regrets. Alternative #6: Just Be Absolutely Clueless Stop being all defensive. Who cares if you don’t care about the dang Super Bowl? Why youve being all insecure about this? Just go about your day as if you haven’t got clue-one what football is, what the Super Bowl is, or what the big deal is anyway. Twiddle your thumbs, kick some rocks, count some sheep. Whatever floats your boat! Alternative #8: Try to Awaken the Sports-Hordes It’s true, one of the signs of a crumbling empire is that it turns into mob-rule that craves distractions: games, bread, and circuses. You’re right, the world needs saving. Instead of wasting your time watching the Super Bowl, write an epic speech that will inspire the masses, awaken them, enlighten them, and galvanize them to save the rain forest, get income disparity under control, slow down the pace of evolving artificial intelligence! The future of the world is in your hands now! Alternative #9: Alternative Party Who said that you cant host a party just because everyone will be watching football? There are lots of NFL haters, hippies and non-conformists, geeks and intellectuals, and single girls who are also going to ignore Super Bowl Parties and will be more than excited to help you organize the alternative one. The theme of your party may be just that super bowl hating, with vegan snacks and drinks other than beer. Or you may choose any other theme that is suitable to your mood, and weather, and place where you going to host it. We are not going to be that cliche to include alternative #10 in the list as you may expect. But if you have any ideas that can be added to our list share them in the comments!

Partnership Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Partnership Analysis - Essay Example These can be used with strategic intent, especially for gaining competitive advantage. We take the case of Ford Motor, the second largest car maker in the US. While Ford has built many IS with strategic aspects, we focus on the IS for supplier – Ford relations. Managers can use value chain analysis to identify opportunities to use IS for competitive advantage (Porter, 1985, 2001; Shank and Govindarajan, 1993). An organization (in our case, Ford) can be thought of as a big input – output process. This can be represented schematically as follows: Ford Motor purchases automobile components and services from automotive companies in the industry. So at the left end in the schematic, supplies are purchased and brought into Ford. Ford then integrates those supplies (components) and makes cars, which it markets to customers. Ford then provides customer service after it sells the cars. In this entire process, there are opportunities for people in Ford to add value in various stages of the process. For example, supplies can be acquired more effectively and value can be added. Some other examples are adding value in making cars and improving sales. This process of adding value throughout the organization is called the Value Chain of the organization. Value Chain Analysis is the process of analyzing the organization’s value chain to find out where value is added to products and services, and the costs of adding value. Since IS can automate many activities in the Value Chain, Value Chain Analysis is used widely in using IS for strategic competitive advantage. In this, one has to first draw the Value Chain and then flesh out each of the activities where value is added. Then costs are determined for such value addition activities. Then one has to compare and benchmark these activities with those of the competitors. Then one can use the appropriate IS for gaining competitive advantage. IS can be used at any

Electronic systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Electronic systems - Essay Example These filters produce gain and usually consist only of resistors, capacitors and operational amplifiers. The most common classes of filters that can either be passive or active are the low pass, high pass, band pass, and band stop filters. Ideal low pass filters allow frequencies up to a given limit to pass and attenuate frequencies above that limit. Ideal high pass filters on the other hand, pass frequencies above a specified limit and attenuate those below. Ideal band pass filters allow only a particular band of frequencies to pass and attenuate the remaining frequencies. Ideal band stop filters are the reverse; this class of filters rejects frequencies within a specified band and passes those frequencies outside it. The figure below can be interpreted as first order active filters connected in series. By cascading a 20 dB-gain first order bi-linear filter and another first order bi-linear filter with unity-gain, we can construct a low pass filter whose frequency response is that in Figure 1. When universal filters are cascaded, they form a shaped filter. It is specified that the output signal MUST NOT BE INVERTED. Notice that the transfer function of a bi-linear filter includes a NEGATIVE sign. When two bi-linear filters are cascaded, this eliminates the negative sign thus there is NO NEED for an inverter. From the Transfer Function, where ω denotes the cut-off RADIAN frequency, we can get the cut-off frequency. Since the radian frequency ω =2πf then, . When ω is at the numerator, it denotes a zero and if it is a the denominator, it denotes a pole. A filter is designed based on a given transfer characteristic. An active low pass filter with a gain of 20dB below 10 Hz, 0 dB gain from 160Hz to 48 kHz and -20 dB attenuation above 500 kHz is the subject of this paper. This filter is composed of cascaded components. The transfer characteristic of each of these components is multiplied to obtain the transfer function of the low pass filter. The